Revista de Gestão Costeira Integrada
Volume 10, Número 3, Setembro 2010, Páginas 255-279

DOI: 10.5894/rgci228
* Submissão – 16 Agosto 2010; Avaliação – 12 Setembro 2010; Recepção da versão revista – 21 Setembro 2010; Disponibilização on-line – 24 Setembro 2010

Integrated Coastal Zone Management in small islands: A comparative outline of some islands of the Lesser Antilles *

Gestão integrada da zona costeira em pequenas ilhas: uma abordagem comparativa de algumas ilhas das Pequenas Antilhas

Pascal Saffache ¹, Pierre Angelelli ^{@, 1}

---

@ - Corresponding author : [email protected]
1 - Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, Centre d’Etude et de Recherche en Economie, Modélisation, Gestion et Informatique Appliquée - Center for research and studies in economics, marketing, modelisation and applied computer science (CEREGMIA – EA 2440), Campus de Schoelcher, BP 7207, 97275 Schoelcher Cedex, Martinique (FWI), Phone : 05.96.72.74.00, Fax : 05.96.72.74.03. e-mails : [email protected], [email protected]

---

ABSTRACT
Small islands are ipso facto largely coastal entities. Therefore, ICZM is important in the Lesser Antilles which border the Eastern Caribbean Sea – i.e. from Virgin Islands to Grenada – and includes French territories (Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Barthelemy and St. Martin), independent States and self-governing territories.
The Lesser Antilles, as we define them above, are very similar: located in the same geographical area they have common handicaps (small size, remoteness from mainland, insularity, small but concentrated population, narrow markets, economic dependence on a few products or services for export or import); they are very vulnerable to natural phenomena (hurricanes, earthquakes, erosion, tsunamis, volcanoes, global warming, rising sea levels, etc.) ; and they must protect their coastline and coastal waters because they are an important natural capital for them, which attracts tourist incomes strongly contributing (for some of them) to the economy. Because of these characteristics, the islands have mostly adhered to common international principles. This is particularly the Cartagena Convention (1983) prepared under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme, and its protocols (OSP 1983, SPAW 1990 and LBS 1999), Earth Summit (Rio 1992) and Chapter 17 of the “Agenda 21”, the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (Barbados 1994), the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg 2002).
Yet, despite these similarities, the Lesser Antilles islands differ in the implementation of integrated coastal zone management. These differences are illustrated in the article with examples from Guadeloupe (Desirade and Marie-Galante islands), Martinique (Le Robert bay), St. Lucia (Soufriere Parish) and others islands taking part in Coast and Beach Stability in the Caribbean Islands Program, and Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP).
We advocate that the divergences of ICZM in the Lesser Antilles can be mostly explained by the way in which the economic valuation of coastal zones is considered (or is not considered) in each island.
Thus, in the case of the French islands, the value of coastal zones is in general not economically estimated, because the goods and services they provide are regarded by nature as non-market, belong to no one in their own and are to the free disposal of all. As a result, these goods and services are little managed or managed by defect by a mosaic of public authorities. Hence, the ICZM is concentrated on coordinating public programs and services. In Guadeloupe and Martinique, ICZM reflects this approach.
In the case of independent islands and self-governing territories in the Lesser Antilles, where the natural capital concretely plays an important role in the economy through tourism revenue, the economic valuation of goods and services “output” of the coastal zone is more developed. By measuring external economies and diseconomies, ICZM can become more operational as well in management itself as in the assessment of stakeholders interests and political prioritization in terms of town and country planning. So that it is less a question of coordinating policies and means, than having human and material means sufficient for the control of the policies.
We conclude that the absence of a protection policy based on the economic valuation of coastal areas hinders, in the French Lesser Antilles, the awareness of the degradation of coastal and marine environment.

Keywords: Caribbean Sea; Economic Valuation; Guadeloupe; Integrated Coastal Zone Management ; Martinique; Natural Capital; Outermost Regions of European Union; Positive and Negative Externalities; Small Island Developing States.

RESUMO
As pequenas ilhas são, por definição, entidades essencialmente costeiras. Neste contexto, a Gestão Integrada das Zonas Costeiras (GIZC) assume um papel importante para as Pequenas Antilhas situadas a leste do mar do Caribe (das Ilhas Virgens, a Norte, até Grenada, a Sul) incluindo os territórios franceses (Guadalupe, Martinica, Saint-Barthélemy e Saint-Martin), as ilhas independentes e os territórios autónomos.
Estas pequenas ilhas das Antilhas são muito similares: localizam-se na mesma área geográfica apresentando desvantagens também comuns (pequena superfície, afastamento, insularidade, população pouco numerosa mas concentrada, mercado económico limitado, dependência económica de um pequeno número de produtos ou serviços para exportação); apresentam ainda vulnerabilidade aos fenómenos naturais (furacões, terramotos, erosão, tsunamis, vulcões, aquecimento global, etc.), e a necessidade de proteger o litoral e as águas costeiras uma vez que estes constituem um capital natural atractivo, que permitem captar rendimentos do turismo que contribuem significativamente para a sua economia. Face a tais características, estes territórios insulares têm vindo a aderir a princípios comuns internacionais, em particular os da Convenção de Cartagena (1983) e seus protocolos, da Cimeira da Terra e do Capítulo 17 da “Agenda 21” (1992), do Programa de Acção Barbados para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável dos Pequenos Estados Insulares (1994), e da Cimeira Mundial do Desenvolvimento Sustentável (Joanesburgo 2002).
No entanto, apesar das semelhanças, as Pequenas Antilhas divergem na aplicação dos princípios da GIZC. Estas divergências são ilustradas no presente artigo a partir de exemplos de Guadalupe (ilha de Desirade e ilha de Marie-Galante), Martinica (município litoral do Robert), Santa Lúcia (freguesia da Soufriere) e diversas ilhas anglófonas que participam nos programas Coast and Beach Stability in the Caribbean Islands Program, e no Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program.
No presente artigo, demonstra-se que as divergências da aplicação dos princípios da GIZC nas Pequenas Antilhas pode ser explicado, fundamentalmente, pelo modo como a avaliação económica das zonas costeiras é considerada (ou não é considerada), em cada ilha.
Assim, no caso das ilhas francesas, o valor das zonas costeiras, em geral, não é economicamente tido em consideração, uma vez que os bens e serviços que oferecem são considerados, por natureza, como não pertencendo a ninguém e, por isso, disponíveis gratuitamente para todos. Como resultado, as zonas costeiras encontram-se literalmente sem valor comercial explícito e são pouco geridas, ou então administradas por defeito por um mosaico de poderes públicos. O exemplo de Guadalupe e Martinica demonstram o modo como a GIZC se focaliza na coordenação de programas e serviços públicos.
Nas ilhas independentes e territórios autónomos das Pequenas Antilhas, o capital natural desempenha um importante contributo para a economia que resulta das receitas provenientes do turismo. A valoração económica dos bens e serviços gerados pelas zonas costeiras é muito mais desenvolvida.
Através da medição das economias e “deseconomias” externas, a GIZC poderá tornar-se mais operativa quer na sua própria gestão, quer igualmente na avaliação dos interesses locais e na classificação das prioridades políticas, em termos de ordenamento do território. Desta circunstância observa-se tratar-se de uma questão de dispor dos meios humanos e materiais suficientes para a condução das políticas, mais do que de coordenar políticas e meios.
Concluí-se do estudo efectuado nas ilhas francesas das Pequenas Antilhas que a ausência de uma política de protecção apoiada no valor económico estimado da zona costeira, poderá ser responsável pelo atraso na tomada de consciência e na degradação dos ambientes litorais e marinhos dos territórios insulares, de pequena dimensão.

Palavras-chave: Mar do Caribe; Guadalupe; Gestão Integrada da Zona Costeira; Pequenas Antilhas; Capital Natural; Martinica; Regiões Ultraperiféricas da União Europeia.

 

Angelelli, P. & Célimène, F. (2010) - Les Fonds structurels 2007-2013 dans une région ultrapériphérique de l’Union européenne: qu’est-ce qui ne va pas avec les Fonds européens en Martinique ? Rapport de recherche # DT 2010-02, 23 Avril 2010, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, Schoelcher, Martinique.

Angelelli, P. & Saffache, P. (2010) - O mosaico dos poderes públicos em zona costeira numa região ultraperiférica da União europeia: O caso da criação dos recifes artificiais na Martinica. Revista de Gestão Costeira Integrada / Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management, 10(1):65-80. http://www.aprh.pt/rgci/pdf/rgci-166_Angelelli.pdf

Angeon, V. & Saffache, P. (2008) - Les Petites Economies Insulaires et le Développement Durable : des réalités locales résilientes ? Etudes caribéennes, 11:2-23. ISSN: 1779-0980. Available on-line: http://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/3443.

Armstrong, H.; De Kervenoael, R.J.; Li, X.; Read, R. (1998) - A comparison of the economic performance of different micro-states, and between micro-states and larger countries. World Development, 26(4):639-656. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00006-0

Arrow, K.; Solow, R.; Portney, P.R.; Leamer, E.E.; Radner; R.; Schuman, H. (1993) - Report of the NOAA panel on contingent valuation. 67p., Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Available on-line:
http://www.darrp.noaa.gov/library/pdf/cvblue.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010.)

Baumol, W.J. (1972) - On taxation and the control of externalities. The American Economic Review, 62(3)307-322, American Economic Association, Washington, DC, U.S.A. ISSN: 0002-8282.

Briguglio, L. (1995) - Small island developing states and their economic vulnerabilities. World Development, 23(9):1615-1632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00065-K 

Buchanan, J.M. (1954) - Social choice, democracy, and free markets. The Journal of Political Economy, 62(2):114-123. doi: 10.1086/257496

Buchanan, J.M. (1969) - External diseconomies, corrective taxes, and market structure. The American Economic Review, 59(1):174-177. Available on-line: http://www.sfu.ca/~wainwrig/Econ400/
documents/Buchanan_AER69.pdf.

Burke, L.; Greenhalgh, S.; Prager, D.; Cooper, E. (2008) - Coastal capital : Economic valuation of coral reefs in Tobago and St.Lucia - final report. 76 p., Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Available on-line: http://pdf.wri.org/coastal_capital.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010.)

Caribbean MoU (1996) - Caribbean Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control, signed at Christ Church (Barbados) on 9 Fev.1996. Available on-line: http://www.caribbeanmou.org/index.php. (Accessed on June 2010)

CARICOMP - Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity (2001) – Manual of methods for mapping and monitoring of physical and biological parameters in the coastal zone of the Caribbean (levels 1 & 2).

CARICOMP, Data Management Center Centre for Marine Sciences, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica and Florida Institute of Oceanography, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida, U.S.A. Available on-line: http://www.ima.gov.tt/home/images/
stories/caricomp_manual_2001.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010).

Coase, R.H. (1937) - The nature of the firm. Economica, New Series, 4(16):386-405. http://www.sonoma.edu/users/e/eyler/426/coase1.pdf

Coase, R.H. (1960) - The problem of social cost. Journal of Law and Economics, 3:1-44. Available on-line: http://www.sfu.ca/~allen/
CoaseJLE1960.pdf.

Colmenares, N.A. & Escobar, J. (2002) - Ocean and coastal issues and policy responses in the Caribbean. Ocean & Coastal Management, 45(11-12), 905-924. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0964-5691(02)00113-8

Costanza, R. (2000) - Social goals and the valuation of ecosystem services. Ecosystems, 3(1):4-10. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s100210000002

Costanza, R. & Daly, H. E. (1992) - Natural capital and sustainable development. Conservation Biology, 6(1) :37-46. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610037.x

Dehoorne, O. & Saffache, P. (2008) - Le tourisme dans les îles et rivages tropicaux: enjeux, menaces et perspectives. Etudes caribéennes, 9/10 :2-8. ISSN: 1779-0980. Available on-line:
http://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/852

Dehoorne, O. & Saffache, P. (eds.) (2008) - Le tourisme dans les îles et littoraux tropicaux et subtropicaux. Usages des lieux et enjeux de développement. 375 p., Editions Publibook, Etudes Caribéennes, n°9-10, Paris, France. ISBN: 9782748343106. Available on-line: http://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/832

Easterly, W. & Kraay, A. (2000) - Small states, small problems? income, growth, and volatility in small states. World Development, 28(11):2013-2027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00068-1 

Ehler, Charles N. (2003) - Indicators to measure governance performance in integrated coastal management. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(3-4):335-345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0964-5691(03)00020-6

European Union (1995) - Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Integrated Management of Coastal Zones. 35p., Commission of the European Communities, COM(95)511 – 3 Nov.1995.

European Union. (2000a) - Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on Integrated Coastal Zone Management: A Strategy for Europe. 27p., Commission of the European Communities, COM(2000)547 final, Brussels, Belgium. Available on-line:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2000:0547:FIN:EN:PDF. (Accessed on June 2010.)

European Union. (2000b) - White Paper on environmental liability. 30p., Commission of the European Communities, COM(2000)066 final – 9 Feb.2000, Brussels, Belgium. Available on-line:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2000:0066:FIN:EN:PDF. (Accessed on June 2010.)

European Union. (2000c) - Proposal for a European Parliament and Council recommendation concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe. 6p., Commission of the European Communities, COM(2000)545 final – 8 Sep.2000, Brussels, Belgium. Available on-line: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2000:0545:FIN:EN:PDF. (Accessed on June 2010.)

European Union. (2000d) - Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. Official
Journal of the European Communities, L 327, 22.12.2000. Available on-line: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2000:327:0001:0072:EN:PDF. (Accessed on June 2010).

European Union. (2007a) - Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - An Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union. 16p., Commission of the European Communities, COM(2007)575 final - 10 Oct.2007, Brussels, Belgium. Available on-line: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0575:FIN:EN:PDF. (Accessed on June 2010.)

European Union. (2007b) - Communication from the Commission - Report to the European Parliament and the Council: An evaluation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Europe. 10p., Commission of the European Communities, COM(2007)308 final – 7 Jun.2007, Brussels, Belgium. Available on-line: Available on-line:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0308:FIN:EN:PDF. (Accessed on June 2010)

European Union. (2010) - Commission Staff Working Document - Synthesis of the Consultation on the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy. 37p., Commission of the European Communities, SEC(2010)428 final, 16 Apr.2010, Brussels, Belgium. Available on-line: http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/reform/sec%282010%290428_en.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010.)

Fanning, L.; Mahon, R.; McConney, P.; Angulo, J.; Burrows, F.; Chakalall, B.; Diego, G.; Haughton, M.; Heileman, S.; Martínez, S.; Ostine, L’O.; Oviedo, A.; Parsons, S.; Phillips, T.; Arroya, C.S.; Simmons, B.; Toro, C. (2007) - A Large Marine Ecosystem Governance Framework. Marine Policy, 31(4):434-443. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2007.01.003

French Government (2009) - Livre Bleu: Stratégie pour la Mer et les Océans. 85p., Premier ministre (Secrétariat Général de la Mer), Paris, France. Available on-line: http://www.sgmer.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/2009-12-08_-_Livre_bleu.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010).

French Government, (2005) - Rapport français d’application de la recommandation du Parlement européen et du Conseil du 30 mai 2002 relative à la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie de gestion intégrée des zones côtières en Europe. 87p., Délégation Interministérielle à l’Aménagement et à la Compétitivité (DIACT) & Secrétariat Général de la Mer, Paris, France.

Gibbs, Mark T. (2009) - Resilience: What is it and what does it mean for marine policymakers? Marine Policy, 33(2):322-331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2008.08.001

Gore, S. (2007) - Framework development for beach management in the British Virgin Islands. Ocean & Coastal Management,
50(9) :732-753. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2007.03.004

Henocque, Y. & Denis, J. (Eds.). (2001) - A methodological guide : Steps and tools towards integrated coastal area management. 66p., UNESCO,
Paris, France. Available on-line: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/
0012/001245/124596eo.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010.)

Henocque, Yves (2003) - Development of process indicators for coastal zone management assessment in France. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(3-4):363-379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0964-5691(03)00013-9 

Hugounenq, R.V.; Joeger, C.; Baude, J.; Simon, O.; Jacquelain, V.; Savoye, B. (2007) - L’ultrapériphéricité définit-elle un modèle de croissance? 123p., Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques, Paris. ISBN: 9782110977779. Available on-line: http://www.afd.fr/jahia/webdav/site/afd/users/admiguadeloupe/
public/Etude%20RUP.pdf

Lesales, Thierry (2007) - L’inégalité des territoires insulaires de la Caraïbe face aux menaces volcaniques. Etudes caribéennes, 7:2-7. Available on-line: http://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/316

Lipton, D.; Wellman, K.; Sheifer, I.; Weiher, R. (1995) - Economic valuation of natural resources: A guidebook for coastal resources policymakers. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program, Decision Analysis Series, Nº.5, 131p., U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, MD, U.S.A. Available on-line: http://www.mdsg.umd.edu/programs/
extension/valuation/handbook.htm

Logossah, K. (2007) - Les Petites Economies Insulaires: quelle spécificité ? Revue d’Economie Régionale & Urbaine, 2007(1) :3-11, Association de Science Régionale de Langue Française, Paris, France.

Lorah, P.; Conway, D.; Jackiewicz, E. (1995) - Institutional mechanisms for coastal resource protection in St. Lucia. 43p., Supplementary Paper #4 from EPAT - Environmental and Natural Resources Policy Training Project / MUCIA - Midwest Universities Consortium for International Activities, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, U.S.A. Available on-line:
http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/11914/1/sp4.pdf

Mahon, R.; Fanning, L.; McConney, P. (2009) - A governance perspective on the large marine ecosystem approach. Marine Policy, 33(2), 317-321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2008.07.013 

Mahon, R. & McConney, P. (2004) - Managing the managers: Improving the structure and operation of small fisheries departments, especially in
SIDS. Ocean & Coastal Management, 47(9-10):529-535. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2004.09.001

McKenna, J.; Cooper, A.; O’Hagan, A. M. (2008) - Managing by principle: A critical analysis of the european principles of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM). Marine Policy, 32(6):941-955. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.marpol.2008.02.005

Murawski, S. A. (2007) - Ten Myths Concerning Ecosystem Approaches to Marine Resource Management. Marine Policy, 31(6) :681-690.
http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpol.2007.03.011

Nijkamp, P.; Vindigni, G.; Nunes, P. A. L. D. (2008) - Economic valuation of biodiversity: A comparative study. Ecological Economics,
67(2):217-231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.03.003

Nunes, P.A.L.D. & Riyanto, Y. E. (2005) - Information as a regulatory instrument to price biodiversity benefits: Certification and ecolabelling practices. Biodiversity and Conservation, 14(8):2009-2027.
http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s10531-004-2529-3

OECD/OCDE (Ed.) (2001) - Valuation of Biodiversity Benefits. 181p., OECD/OCDE – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development / Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Economiques Publications, Paris, France. Available on-line: http://www.brc.re.kr/pdf/benefits.pdf. (Accessed on June 2010).

Olsen, S. B. (2003) - Frameworks and indicators for assessing progress in integrated coastal management initiatives. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(3-4):347-361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0964-5691(03)00012-7

Pearce, D.W. & Sturmey, S.G. (1966) - Private and social costs and benefits: A note on terminology. The Economic Journal, 76(301):152-158.

Pierre-Nathoniel, D. (2003) – Towards the Strengthening of the Association: the Case of the Soufriere Marine Management Area (SMMA), St. Lucia. St. Lucia Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (prepared for the Second International Tropical Marine Ecosystem Management Symposium held of 24-27 March 2003 in Manila, Philippines).

Pomeroy, R.S.; McConney, P.; Mahon, R. (2004) - Comparative analysis of coastal resource co-management in the Caribbean. Ocean & Coastal Management, 47(9-10):429-447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.ocecoaman.2004.09.005 

Pritchard, L.J.; Folke, C.; Gunderson, L. (2000) - Valuation of ecosystem services in institutional context. Ecosystems, 3(1):36-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s100210000008

Rivera-Arriaga, E. (2005) - Assessing foreign aid efforts for coastal management in Latin America and the Caribbean regions. Ocean & Coastal Management, 48(9-10) :693-720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.07.001

Saffache, P. (2000) - Le littoral martiniquais : milieux, dynamiques et gestion des risques. 417p., Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France. ISBN : 9782729531270.

Saffache, P. (2008) - Le littoral martiniquais: entre contraintes physiques et aménagements de protection, Géologues, 158, pp.105-109, Uniom Française des Géologues, Paris, France.

Saffache, P. & Desse, M. (1999) – L’évolution contrastée du littoral de l’île de la Martinique, M@ppemonde, 55(3) :24-27, Institut des Sciences Hummaines et Socoales du CNRS, Université d’Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse, Avignon, France. ISSN: 1796-7298. Available on-line:
http://www.mgm.fr/PUB/Mappemonde/M399/Saffache.pdf

Sandersen, H. & Koester, S. (2000) - Co-management of tropical coastal zones: the case of the Soufriere Marine Management Area, St. Lucia. Coastal Management, 28(1):87-97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
089207500263675.

Schleupner, Christine (2008) - Evaluation of coastal squeeze and its consequences for the Caribbean island Martinique. Ocean & Coastal Management, 51(5):383-390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.ocecoaman.2008.01.008

Scitovsky, Tibor (1954) - Two concepts of external economies. The Journal of Political Economy, 62(2):143-151. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1086/257498

Singh, A. & Mee, L. (2008) - Examination of policies and MEAs commitment by SIDS for sustainable management of the Caribbean Sea. Marine Policy, 32(3):274-282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.marpol.2007.06.004

Spurgeon, J. (1999) - The socio-economic costs and benefits of coastal habitat rehabilitation and creation. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 37(8-12), 373-382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(99)00074-0

Srinivasan, T.N. (1986) – The Costs and Benefits of Being a Small, Remote, Island, Landlocked, or Ministate Economy. World Bank Research Observer, 1(2), 205-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/wbro/1.2.205

Tol, R.S.J. (2005) - Comment on “Valuing or pricing natural and environmental resources” by Yaoqi Zhang and Yiqing Li, environmental science and policy, 8, 189–190. Environmental Science & Policy, 8(2):187-188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2004.12.001 

United Nations (1983a) - Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region. Cartagena de Indias, 24 March 1983. Available on-line:
http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention/cartagena-convention.pdf

United Nations (1983b) - Protocol concerning co-operation in combating oil spills in the Wider Caribbean Region. Cartagena de Indias, 24 March 1983. Available online: http://www.cep.unep.org/events-and-meetings/general-documents/
oil-spills-protocol-en/view. (Accessed on June 2010.)

United Nations (1990) - Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to convention for the protection and development of the marine environment of the Wider Caribbean Region. Kingston, 18 January 1990. Available online : http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention/spaw-protocol/
spaw-protocol-en.pdf/view. (Accessed on June 2010.)

United Nations (1994) - Report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. 77 p., Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, Bridgetown, Barbados, United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, A/CONF.167/9. Available on-line:
http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_sids/sids_pdfs/BPOA.pdf

United Nations (1995) – Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based activities. 61p., Intergovernmental conference to adopt a Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, Washington, D.C., 23 October – 3 November 1995. UNEP(OCA)/LBA/IG.2/7. Available on-line:
http://www.cep.unep.org/meetings-events/5th-lbs-istac/5th_lbs_istac_
documents/reference-documents/unep-oca-lba-ig.2-7.pdf

United Nations (1999a) - Resolution S-22/2 adopted by the General Assembly. Declaration and state of progress and initiatives for the future implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. 21p., United Nations General Assembly, Twenty-second special session Agenda item 8, 12 June 2000 (Adopts the Declaration approved by the 5th plenary meeting - 28 September 1999), A/RES/S-22/2, United Nations, New York, NY, USA. Available on-line: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/
GEN/N00/424/12/PDF/N0042412.pdf?OpenElement. (Accessed on June 2010).

United Nations (1999b) - Protocol concerning pollution from Land-Based Sources and activities to the Convention for the Protection and the Development of the marine environment of the Wider Caribbean Region. Done at Oranjestad (Aruba) on 6 October 1999. Available online: http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention/lbs-protocol/lbs-
protocol-english. (Accessed on June 2010.)

United Nations (2002) - Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August – 4 September 2002. A/CONF/199/20, 173 p., United Nations, New York, NY, USA. Available online: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/636/93/PDF/
N0263693.pdf?OpenElement. (Accessed on June 2010)

Zhang, Y. & Li, Y. (2005) - Valuing or pricing natural and environmental resources? Environmental Science & Policy, 8(2), 179-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2004.09.005 

 

em construção